Different Ways of Stating Hypothesis
Introduction
Hypothesis is a tentative statement about the solution of the problem. Hypothesis offers a solution of the problem that is to be verified empirically and based on some rationale. Hypothesis guides the research process in a systematic way towards a achieving a desired goal. Certain important characteristics of an ideal hypothesis include being clear, specific, empirically testable and being related to a body of theory. It acts as a temporary solution and helps the researcher to start his investigation in an objective manner. Hypotheses can be of various types such as working, scientific, alternative, research, null or statistical hypothesis. A hypothesis can virtually relate to anything under the sun. Hence, a great caution and practical approach needs to be adopted while formulating a hypothesis. Two basic methods of hypothesis formulation are qualitative method and quantitative method.
Formulation of Hypothesis
Formulation
of hypothesis is very crucial to the solution of research problem because
hypothesis helps in keeping the research of the researcher focused. It helps in
narrowing the sample so that eventually the researcher is not left with useless
data. If the hypothesis is ill-defined then it will become very difficult
rather practically impossible for the researcher to have a reasonable basis for
his research. A properly tested hypothesis helps to either verify a theory or
deny it. It may also suggest some modifications in an existing theory. Although
hypothesis do not generally challenge the well-known laws of the nature or the
well-established principles of science which have been proved beyond reasonable
doubt, yet hypothesis do at times help in formulating new theories.
“We
cannot take a single step forward in any inquiry unless we begin with a
suggested explanation or solution of the difficulty which originated it. Such
tentative explanations are suggested to us by something in the subject-matter
and by our previous knowledge. When they are formulated as propositions, they
are called hypothesis.” -Morris R Cohen &
Ernest Nagel
Formulation of Hypothesis differs with the method of research conducted such as: Two basic methods of hypothesis formulation are qualitative method and quantitative method.
Qualitative Method
The researcher uses
questions, not objectives or hypothesis. He poses a central question, which is
being examined in the study in the most general form- “the broadest question
that can be asked in a study.” Several sub-questions are raised related to the
central question to narrow the focus of study but to leave the questioning at
an open end. They are under continual review and restructuring along the course
of research. Questions begin with “what”, “how”. They focus on a single
concept. The questions use non-directional terminology.
Quantitative
Method
The
researcher uses questions and hypothesis to compose and focus the purpose of
study. Hypothesis or research questions used to compare, relate and describe
variables. The research follows from a test of theory and the question and the
hypothesis or the research questions are included in the theory. Independent
and dependent variables are measured separately. It is not a combination of
both either a research question or a hypothesis. Hypothesis needs to be
structured before the data-gathering and interpretation phase of the research.
A well-grounded hypothesis indicates that the researcher has sufficient
knowledge in the area to undertake the investigation. The hypothesis gives
direction to the collection and interpretation of data. Consider the example of
a simple association between two variables, Y and X.
· Y
and X are associated (or, there is an association between Y and X).
· Y
is related to X (or, Y is dependent on X).
· As
X increases, Y decreases (or, increases in values of X appear to effect
reduction in values of Y)
The
first hypothesis provides a simple statement of association between Y and X.
Nothing is indicated about the association that would allow the researcher to
determine which variable, Y or X, would tend to cause the other variable to
change in value. The second hypothesis is also a simple statement of
association between Y and X, but this time it may be inferred that values of Y
are in some way contingent upon the condition of the X variable. The third
hypothesis is the most specific of the three. Not only does it say that Y and X
are related and that Y is dependent on X for its value, but it also reveals
something more about the nature of the association between the two variables.
Hypotheses
are statements in quantitative research in which the investigator makes a prediction
or a conjecture about the outcome of a relationship among attributes or
characteristics. Traditionally used in
experiments, they serve, like research questions, to narrow the purpose
statement to specific predictions. These predictions are not simply an
“educated guess.” Rather, researchers base them on results from past research
and literature where investigators have found certain results and can now offer
predictions as to what other investigators will find when they repeat the study
with new people or at new sites.
Importance
and use of variables. To write quantitative purpose statements,
research questions, and hypotheses, you need to understand the
importance and use of variables. A variable is a characteristic or attribute of an individual or an
organization that researchers can measure or
observe and (b) varies among individuals or organizations studied.
Examples of variables. Leadership
style (by administrators), Achievement in science (by students), Interpersonal
communication skills (of counsellors)
The examples of variables are given on Figure 1
Figure 1
Types of variables
Variable can be measured (can be assessed on an instrument or observed and recorded on an instrument) and it varies among Individuals (can assume different values or scores for different individuals). When you start writing a research hypothesis, you use an “if–then” statement format, which states the predicted relationship between two or more variables. Clearly identify the independent variables (the variables being changed) and the dependent variables (the variables being measured), as well as the population you are studying. Review and revise your hypothesis as needed. An example of a research hypothesis in this format is as follows:
“If [athletes] follow [cold water showers daily], then their [endurance] increases.”
· Population:
athletes
· Independent
variable: daily cold-water showers
· Dependent
variable: endurance
If certain conditions are true, then
the variables will be related. For example, Smith’s (2000) theory of gender
achievement predicts that if achievement in math is gender related, and girls
are socialized to be better at math than boys, then girls will perform better
in math than boys.
Writing Quantitative Purpose Statements
A quantitative
purpose statement identifies the variables,
their relationship, and the participants
and site for research. Several guidelines can help you prepare good purpose statements:
Write the purpose statement in a single sentence. Begin the statement with key
identifier words, such as “The purpose of this study,” to clearly signal
readers. If you plan to use a theory, introduce it in this statement by stating
that you plan to “test a theory.” Three options exist for
using variables in this statement: You seek to relate two or more variables, to
compare a variable composed of two or more groups in terms of the dependent
variable, or to describe one variable. Use the words relate or compare
or describe to indicate whether variables will be related, groups
will be compared, or variables will be described. If variables are related or
groups compared, specify the independent and dependent variables and any
control or intervening variables. State the independent variable first (first
position in the sentence), followed by the dependent variable (second position
in the sentence). If control or mediating variables are used, state them last
(in the third position in the sentence). The placement of these variables in
this sentence is important. Identify the participants to be studied and the
research site at which they will be studied.
Sample Scripts. To apply these guidelines, consider completing the following
script by filling in the blanks: The purpose of this study is to test (the theory) by
relating (the independent variable) to (the dependent variable) for (participants)
at (the research site).or By comparing (independent variable) with (group 1)
and (group 2) in terms of (dependent variable) for (participants) at (the
research site).To apply this script, examine the following example for the case
in which the researcher relates variables: The purpose of this study is
to test Fines’ theory (1996) by relating leadership style (independent
variable) to autonomy (dependent variable) for teachers (participants) in high
schools in State X (research site).The next example illustrates the use of the
script in which the researcher compares two groups (on an independent
variable) in terms of one dependent variable: The purpose of this study is to
test Smart’s theory (1999) by comparing autocratic leaders (group 1) with
consensus-building leaders (group 2) in terms of the satisfaction of teachers
(dependent variable) in colleges in State X (research site).Both examples begin
with the phrase “The purpose of” to signal the reader. The independent variables
precede the dependent variables in the statements. Also in both illustrations, the
authors found theories to test, and they mentioned them at the beginning of the
sentence.
In other studies, a researcher may have only a hunch or a rationale and may not formally include a theory. Maria, the high school
teacher interested in studying weapon possession among high school students,
might write the purpose statement with control variables in the third position:
The purpose of this study is to relate student misbehaviour factors (i.e.,
fighting) (independent variable— position 1) to attitudes toward weapon
possession (dependent variable— position 2) for students in the
district’s high schools (participants—site), controlling for gender, grade
level, and race (position 3). In this example, the variables gender,
grade level, and race will be eliminated as factors influencing weapon
possession using statistical procedures.
Writing
Quantitative Research Questions
Because research questions narrow and focus the purpose statement,
they serve to restate the purpose in specific questions that the researcher
seeks to answer. Research questions describe the participants’ reactions to a
single variable, compare groups on an outcome, or relate to variables. Research
questions are found in all designs in quantitative research, such as in
experiments, correlational studies, and surveys.
Guidelines. The basic steps in forming a research question are: Pose a
question Begin with “how,” “what,” or “why” Specify the independent, dependent,
and mediating or control variables Use the words describe, compare, or relate
to indicate the action or connection among the variables Indicate the
participants and the research site for the study Three popular forms are
available in quantitative research: descriptive questions, relationship
questions, and comparison questions.
Descriptive
Question. Researchers
use a descriptive
question to identify participants’ responses
to a single variable or question. This single variable may be an independent, a
dependent, or an intervening variable. The following is a script for writing a
descriptive question: How frequently do (participants) (variable) at (research site)?
An application of this script might be: How frequently do African Americans
feel isolated on college campuses?
Relationship
Questions. In most research studies,
investigators seek to learn more than responses to single variables. They may
examine the relationship between two or more variables. Relationship
questions seek
to answer the degree and magnitude of the relationship between two or more
variables. These questions often relate different types of variables in a study,
such as independent variables to dependent variables or dependent variables to control
variables. The most common case occurs when researchers relate the independent
variable to the dependent variable. The following is a script for writing a
relationship question: How does (independent variable) relate to (dependent variable)
for (participants)at (research site)? As applied to the relationship between
isolation and ethnic identity, the script suggests: How do feelings of
isolation relate to (or influence) the ethnic
identity of African Americans in the United States?
Comparison
Questions. Researchers might ask a comparison
question to find out how two or more groups
on an independent variable differ in terms of
one or more outcome variables. Experiments employ comparison questions, and, in these studies, the
researcher provides some intervention to one group and withholds it from the
second group. A script for writing a comparison question would be: How does (group
1) differ from (group 2) in terms of (dependent variable) for (participants) at
(research site)? When this script is applied in a comparison of African
Americans and Euro Americans, we get: How do African Americans and Euro
Americans compare in their perceptions of ethnic identity?
Examples of hypothesis questions are represented in Table 1
Table 1
Hypothesis questions and examples
|
Hypothesis Questions |
|
Examples |
|
Relationship Questions |
|
Significant relationship exists between smoking and obesity |
|
Comparison Questions |
|
Daily exposure to the sun leads to increased levels of happiness |
|
Descriptive Questions |
|
There is no difference in the mean amount of weight loss when
comparing a low carbohydrate diet with a low-fat diet |
Researchers narrow the focus of the study to at least one
hypothesis that provides a prediction about the outcome of the study. A
prediction that Maria might make would be: The more students feel alienated,
the more likely they are to carry weapons to school. Can you think of other
predictions about school violence that Maria might make?
Guidelines.
Hypotheses need to include specific components. Guidelines for
writing them are: State the variables in this order: independent (first
position), dependent (second position), and control (third position). If you
compare groups in your hypothesis, explicitly state the groups; if variables are
related, specify the relationship among the variables. Make a prediction about
changes you expect in your groups, such as less or more favourable or no
changes (e.g., no difference). You will then test this prediction using
statistical procedures. You may state information
about the participants and the site of the study, but this information
may not be necessary if it repeats information stated in your purpose statement.
There are two types of hypotheses: the null and the alternative to the null.
Null
Hypotheses
The null hypothesis is the most traditional form of writing a
hypothesis. Null hypotheses make
predictions that of all possible people whom researchers might study (i.e.,
called the general population), there is no
relationship between independent and dependent variables
or no difference between groups of an independent variable or a dependent
variable. To study this hypothesis, you would select
a sample of all possible people and draw
conclusions from the statistical analysis of this sample for the population. A
null hypothesis might begin with the phrase
“There is no difference between” groups or “There
is no relationship between (or among)” variables. To write a hypothesis, you can complete the following
script, which employs the language “no difference”:
There is no difference between (independent variable, group 1) and (independent
variable, group 2) in terms of (dependent variable)
for (participants) at (research site). An example of the application of this script might be:
There is no difference between at-risk and
non-at-risk students in terms of student achievement
on math test scores for third-grade students in a Midwest school district. Independent variable: at-risk students (members
and non-members) Dependent variable: student
achievement test scores Participants:
third-grade students, Site: X school district,
Form and language: null indicating no difference.
Alternative
Hypotheses
In contrast to the null hypothesis, you may write an alternative
hypothesis. You will use an alternative hypothesis if you think there will be a
difference based on results from past research or an explanation or theory
reported in the literature.
The two types of alternative hypotheses are directional and
nondirectional. In a directional alternative hypothesis, the researcher predicts the direction of a change, a difference,
or a relationship for variables in the total population of people. A researcher
selects a sample of people from a population and predicts that the scores will
be higher, better, or changed in some way. This typical form for writing
hypotheses is encountered in the literature more than any other type of
hypothesis. A script for a directional alternative hypothesis is:(group
1, independent variable) at (research site) will have (some difference, such as
higher, lower, greater, lesser) on (dependent variable) than (group 2 of independent
variables). An example of this script is: Students who participate in direct
learning in four elementary schools will have higher achievement scores than
students who participate in whole-language learning. Independent variable:
learning (direct and whole language) Dependent variable: achievement test
scores Participants: third-grade students Research site: four elementary schools’
Key indicator: directional, a prediction is implied.
A variation on the directional hypothesis is the nondirectional
hypothesis. In a nondirectional
alternative hypothesis the researcher
predicts a change, a difference, or a relationship for variables in a
population but does not indicate whether the direction of this prediction will
be positive or negative, or greater or less. The nondirectional alternative is
not as popular as the directional alternative because the researcher does not
take a stand about the direction of the relationship of the variables. A script
for a nondirectional alternative hypothesis is: There is a difference between (group
1, independent variable) and (group 2, independent variable) in terms of (dependent
variable). An illustration of this script would be: There is a difference
between varsity athletes in high school who smoke and those who do not smoke in
terms of athletic accomplishments. In this example, the author does not state
whether the difference will be positive or negative, or greater or less.
The nondirectional alternative is not as popular as the directional alternative
because the researcher does not take a stand about the direction of the
relationship of the variables. A script for a nondirectional alternative
hypothesis is: There is a difference between (group 1, independent variable)
and (group 2, independent variable) in terms of (dependent variable). An
illustration of this script would be: There is a difference between varsity
athletes in high school who smoke and those who do not smoke in terms of
athletic accomplishments. In this example, the author does not state whether
the difference will be positive or negative. An analysis of the variables in
this statement shows: Independent variable: use of tobacco (smokers and nonsmokers)
Dependent variable: athletic accomplishments Participants: varsity athletes
Sites: high schools Key indicator: the words “a difference,” but the direction
is not specified For a quantitative study, know the
differences among the types of variables. Be able to identify clearly the
independent and dependent variables that you plan to study. Locate and identify a theory to test that will
provide an explanation for the relationship among variables in your research
questions and hypotheses.
Conclusion
If
you write hypotheses, consider whether your statements are directional or nondirectional.
Directional hypotheses are more popular today and reflect a prediction about
the expected results of a study resulting from past research. In a quantitative purpose statement (or hypotheses or
questions), the independent variable should be stated in the first position,
followed by the dependent variable in the second position. As you examine a
study, ask yourself: What outcome is being predicted in this study? What
factors are advanced that might explain this outcome? Look for hypotheses or research questions at the end of the
introductory section of a study. An explanation for how
and why the variables are related in hypotheses or research questions is called
a theory or a theoretical rationale. This passage should advance
researchers’ explanations about what they expect to find.
POWERPOINT PRESENTATION
VIDEO
TRY OUT THIS GOOGLE FORM
